Experience

Publications

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• DriveID: safety innovation through individuation

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B., Teo, G., & Mouloua, M. (2012). DriveID: safety innovation through individuation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4273–4278 The driving task is highly complex and places considerable perceptual, physical and cognitive demands on the driver. As driving is fundamentally an information processing activity, distracted or impaired drivers have diminished safety margins compared with non- distracted drivers (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; TRB 1998 a & b). This competition for sensory and decision making capacities can lead to failures that cost lives. Some groups, teens and elderly drivers for example, have patterns of systematically poor perceptual, physical and cognitive performance while driving. Although there are technologies developed to aid these different drivers, these systems are often misused and underutilized. The DriveID project aims to design and develop a passive, automated face identification system capable of robustly identifying the driver of the vehicle, retrieve a stored profile, and intelligently prescribing specific accident prevention systems and driving environment customizations.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• DriveID: safety innovation through individuation

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B., Teo, G., & Mouloua, M. (2012). DriveID: safety innovation through individuation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4273–4278 The driving task is highly complex and places considerable perceptual, physical and cognitive demands on the driver. As driving is fundamentally an information processing activity, distracted or impaired drivers have diminished safety margins compared with non- distracted drivers (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; TRB 1998 a & b). This competition for sensory and decision making capacities can lead to failures that cost lives. Some groups, teens and elderly drivers for example, have patterns of systematically poor perceptual, physical and cognitive performance while driving. Although there are technologies developed to aid these different drivers, these systems are often misused and underutilized. The DriveID project aims to design and develop a passive, automated face identification system capable of robustly identifying the driver of the vehicle, retrieve a stored profile, and intelligently prescribing specific accident prevention systems and driving environment customizations.

• The effects of display size on performance

  Ergonomics (In Press)

  Hancock, P.A., Sawyer, B.D., Stafford, S. (2014) We examined the systematic effects of display size on task performance as derived from a standard perceptual and cognitive test battery. Specifically, three experiments examined the influence of varying viewing conditions on response speed, response accuracy and subjective workload at four differing screen sizes under three different levels of time pressure. Results indicated a ubiquitous effect for time pressure on all facets of response while display size effects were contingent upon the nature of the viewing condition. Thus, performance decrement and workload elevation were evident only with the smallest display size under the two most restrictive levels of time pressure. This outcome generates a lower boundary threshold for display screen size for this order of task demand. Extrapolations to the design and implementation of all display sizes and forms of cognitive and psychomotor demand are considered.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• DriveID: safety innovation through individuation

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B., Teo, G., & Mouloua, M. (2012). DriveID: safety innovation through individuation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4273–4278 The driving task is highly complex and places considerable perceptual, physical and cognitive demands on the driver. As driving is fundamentally an information processing activity, distracted or impaired drivers have diminished safety margins compared with non- distracted drivers (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; TRB 1998 a & b). This competition for sensory and decision making capacities can lead to failures that cost lives. Some groups, teens and elderly drivers for example, have patterns of systematically poor perceptual, physical and cognitive performance while driving. Although there are technologies developed to aid these different drivers, these systems are often misused and underutilized. The DriveID project aims to design and develop a passive, automated face identification system capable of robustly identifying the driver of the vehicle, retrieve a stored profile, and intelligently prescribing specific accident prevention systems and driving environment customizations.

• The effects of display size on performance

  Ergonomics (In Press)

  Hancock, P.A., Sawyer, B.D., Stafford, S. (2014) We examined the systematic effects of display size on task performance as derived from a standard perceptual and cognitive test battery. Specifically, three experiments examined the influence of varying viewing conditions on response speed, response accuracy and subjective workload at four differing screen sizes under three different levels of time pressure. Results indicated a ubiquitous effect for time pressure on all facets of response while display size effects were contingent upon the nature of the viewing condition. Thus, performance decrement and workload elevation were evident only with the smallest display size under the two most restrictive levels of time pressure. This outcome generates a lower boundary threshold for display screen size for this order of task demand. Extrapolations to the design and implementation of all display sizes and forms of cognitive and psychomotor demand are considered.

• Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation

  Consciousness and Cognition

  Cleary, A. M., Brown, A. S., Sawyer, B. D., Nomi, J. S., Ajoku, A. C., & Ryals, A. J. (2012). Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 969–975 Déjà vu is the striking sense that the present situation feels familiar, alongside the realization that it has to be new. According to the Gestalt familiarity hypothesis, déjà vu results when the configuration of elements within a scene maps onto a configuration previously seen, but the previous scene fails to come to mind. We examined this using virtual reality (VR) technology. When a new immersive VR scene resembled apreviously-viewed scene in its configuration but people failed to recall the previously-viewed scene, familiarity ratings and reports of déjà vu were indeed higher than for completely novel scenes. People also exhibited the contrasting sense of newness and of familiarity that is characteristic of déjà vu. Familiarity ratings and déjà vu reports among scenes recognized as new increased with increasing feature-match of ascene to one stored in memory, suggesting that feature-matching can produce familiarity and déjà vu when recall fails.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• DriveID: safety innovation through individuation

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B., Teo, G., & Mouloua, M. (2012). DriveID: safety innovation through individuation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4273–4278 The driving task is highly complex and places considerable perceptual, physical and cognitive demands on the driver. As driving is fundamentally an information processing activity, distracted or impaired drivers have diminished safety margins compared with non- distracted drivers (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; TRB 1998 a & b). This competition for sensory and decision making capacities can lead to failures that cost lives. Some groups, teens and elderly drivers for example, have patterns of systematically poor perceptual, physical and cognitive performance while driving. Although there are technologies developed to aid these different drivers, these systems are often misused and underutilized. The DriveID project aims to design and develop a passive, automated face identification system capable of robustly identifying the driver of the vehicle, retrieve a stored profile, and intelligently prescribing specific accident prevention systems and driving environment customizations.

• The effects of display size on performance

  Ergonomics (In Press)

  Hancock, P.A., Sawyer, B.D., Stafford, S. (2014) We examined the systematic effects of display size on task performance as derived from a standard perceptual and cognitive test battery. Specifically, three experiments examined the influence of varying viewing conditions on response speed, response accuracy and subjective workload at four differing screen sizes under three different levels of time pressure. Results indicated a ubiquitous effect for time pressure on all facets of response while display size effects were contingent upon the nature of the viewing condition. Thus, performance decrement and workload elevation were evident only with the smallest display size under the two most restrictive levels of time pressure. This outcome generates a lower boundary threshold for display screen size for this order of task demand. Extrapolations to the design and implementation of all display sizes and forms of cognitive and psychomotor demand are considered.

• Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation

  Consciousness and Cognition

  Cleary, A. M., Brown, A. S., Sawyer, B. D., Nomi, J. S., Ajoku, A. C., & Ryals, A. J. (2012). Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 969–975 Déjà vu is the striking sense that the present situation feels familiar, alongside the realization that it has to be new. According to the Gestalt familiarity hypothesis, déjà vu results when the configuration of elements within a scene maps onto a configuration previously seen, but the previous scene fails to come to mind. We examined this using virtual reality (VR) technology. When a new immersive VR scene resembled apreviously-viewed scene in its configuration but people failed to recall the previously-viewed scene, familiarity ratings and reports of déjà vu were indeed higher than for completely novel scenes. People also exhibited the contrasting sense of newness and of familiarity that is characteristic of déjà vu. Familiarity ratings and déjà vu reports among scenes recognized as new increased with increasing feature-match of ascene to one stored in memory, suggesting that feature-matching can produce familiarity and déjà vu when recall fails.

• Google Glass: A Driver Distraction Cause or Cure?

  Human Factors

  Sawyer, B. D., Finomore, V. S., Calvo. A. A., & Hancock, P. A. (2014). Objective: We assess the driving distraction potential of texting with Google Glass (Glass), a mobile wearable platform capable of receiving and sending short-message-service and other messaging formats. Background: A known roadway danger, texting while driving has been targeted by legislation and widely banned. Supporters of Glass claim the head-mounted wearable computer is designed to deliver information without concurrent distraction. Existing literature supports the supposition that design decisions incorporated in Glass might facilitate messaging for drivers. Method: We asked drivers in a simulator to drive and use either Glass or a smartphone-based messaging interface, then interrupted them with an emergency brake event. Both the response event and subsequent recovery were analyzed. Results: Glass-delivered messages served to moderate but did not eliminate distracting cognitive demands. A potential passive cost to drivers merely wearing Glass was also observed. Messaging using either device impaired driving as compared to driving without multitasking. Conclusion: Glass in not a panacea as some supporters claim, but it does point the way to design interventions that effect reduced load in multitasking. Application: Discussions of these identified benefits are framed within the potential of new in-vehicle systems that bring both novel forms of distraction and tools for mitigation into the driver’s seat.

• The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  12. Fok, A. W., Frischmann, T. B., Sawyer, B., Robin, M., & Mouloua, M. (2011). The impact of GPS interface design on driving and distraction. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 55(1), 1755–1759 This study empirically examined the effects of keyboard type in a GPS system on driver distraction. Fifty-two undergraduate students were recruited to drive in a simulated environment while using either a QWERTY or ABCD keyboard embedded in a GPS interface. Driving errors, as well as bio-behavioral assessments, eye fixation durations, and EEG (Electroencephalography) theta frequency level were collected to determine the level of distraction and driving performance of participants. Significant differences in driving and distraction measures were found between driving with and without GPS data entry. Despite greater pre-existing participant skill in using two-handed QWERTY keyboards, no differences were found between the two keyboard types when used one-handed while driving. Implications for driver safety, in-vehicle systems design, and distraction research are discussed.

• Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Assisted entry mitigates text messaging based driving detriment. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4279–4282 Previous research using cell phones indicates that manual manipulation is not a principal component of text messaging relating driving detriment. This paper suggests that manipulation of a phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose the message itself co-act to contribute to driving degradation. This being so, drivers sending text messages might experience reduced interference to the driving task if the text messaging itself were assisted through the predictive T9 system. We evaluated undergraduate drivers in a simulator who drove and texted using either Assisted Text entry, via Nokia’s T9 system, or unassisted entry via the multitap interface. Results supported the superiority of the T9 system over the multitap system implying that specific assistive technologies can modulate the degradation of capacity which texting tragically induces.

• Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B. D., Hancock, P. A., Deaton, J., & Suedfeld, P. (2012). Finding the team for Mars: a psychological and human factors analysis of a Mars Desert Research Station crew. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 5481–5484 A two-week mission in March and April of 2011 sent six team members to the Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS). MDRS, a research facility in the high Utah desert, provides an analogue for the harsh and unusual working conditions that will be faced by men and women who one day explore Mars. During the mission a selection of quantitative and qualitative psychological tests were administered to the international, multidisciplinary team. A selection of the results are presented along with discussion.

• Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

  Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., Gutzwiller, R. S., McGrill, C. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2014). Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.

• The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Blalock, L. D., Sawyer, B. D., Kiken, A., & Clegg, B. A. (2009). The impact of load on dynamic versus static situational knowledge while driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(18), 1338-1342 Situation awareness (SA) was examined while driving in a driving simulator under load or no load conditions. Participants drove through two simulated maps and were periodically interrupted, the driving paused, and were asked questions regarding dynamic (i.e., moving) and static (i.e., non-moving) aspects of the environment. Participants in the load condition also had to count backwards by sevens during the drive. Results indicate that driving under load conditions leads to an overall drop in performance in processing of the dynamic elements of the scene, but no such decrement was observed for the static elements. Implications for current theories of SA and applied attention, as well as the potential relevance to understanding impaired driving performance from cell phone use, are discussed.

• Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions

  Human Factors and Ergonomics Society

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2012). Development of a linked simulation network to evaluate intelligent transportation system vehicle to vehicle solutions. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 56(1), 2316-2320 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) and Infrastructure to Vehicle (I2V) technologies promise significant advances in roadway safety, but the prolonged timeline for migration to these technologies suggest turbulent decades of driving safety research to come. To answer the ongoing question of how ITS based evolution of the driving environment will impact The Vehicle Fleet and the driving public, simulation based driver research will be necessary. Unfortunately, traditional single-seat simulators are not well suited to answer questions about networked ITS systems, which inherently involve multiple actors. Multiple seat driving simulators (MSDS), in which drivers interact in a single virtual environment, is argued to be the solution. Details of the ongoing development of the Real-time Multiple Seat Simulator (RMSS) at The University of Central Florida are presented, and implications of this and futures linked simulation installations discussed.

• Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving

  International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design

  Sawyer, B. D., & Hancock, P. A. (2013). Performance degradation due to automation in texting while driving. Proceedings of the 7th International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driving Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, No. 68, 446-452. Bolten, NY Previous research concerning the use of cell phones indicates that physical manipulation of the phone in conjunction with the cognitive need to compose a message together contribute to driving performance degradation. We have suggested that automated assistive text entry schemes such as Nokia’s T9 may mitigate some of these identified costs. In this work drivers in a simulator drove and texted using either the assistive T9 system or an unassisted multitap system. Contrary to previous pilot findings participants showed greater degradation of driving performance when using the automated assistive T9 than the unassisted multitap. Findings support the idea that cognitive composition of a message combined with entry interface automation contributed to driving performance degradation. It further implies that the costs of that automation may exceed the benefits.

• DriveID: safety innovation through individuation

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Sawyer, B., Teo, G., & Mouloua, M. (2012). DriveID: safety innovation through individuation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(0), 4273–4278 The driving task is highly complex and places considerable perceptual, physical and cognitive demands on the driver. As driving is fundamentally an information processing activity, distracted or impaired drivers have diminished safety margins compared with non- distracted drivers (Hancock and Parasuraman, 1992; TRB 1998 a & b). This competition for sensory and decision making capacities can lead to failures that cost lives. Some groups, teens and elderly drivers for example, have patterns of systematically poor perceptual, physical and cognitive performance while driving. Although there are technologies developed to aid these different drivers, these systems are often misused and underutilized. The DriveID project aims to design and develop a passive, automated face identification system capable of robustly identifying the driver of the vehicle, retrieve a stored profile, and intelligently prescribing specific accident prevention systems and driving environment customizations.

• The effects of display size on performance

  Ergonomics (In Press)

  Hancock, P.A., Sawyer, B.D., Stafford, S. (2014) We examined the systematic effects of display size on task performance as derived from a standard perceptual and cognitive test battery. Specifically, three experiments examined the influence of varying viewing conditions on response speed, response accuracy and subjective workload at four differing screen sizes under three different levels of time pressure. Results indicated a ubiquitous effect for time pressure on all facets of response while display size effects were contingent upon the nature of the viewing condition. Thus, performance decrement and workload elevation were evident only with the smallest display size under the two most restrictive levels of time pressure. This outcome generates a lower boundary threshold for display screen size for this order of task demand. Extrapolations to the design and implementation of all display sizes and forms of cognitive and psychomotor demand are considered.

• Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation

  Consciousness and Cognition

  Cleary, A. M., Brown, A. S., Sawyer, B. D., Nomi, J. S., Ajoku, A. C., & Ryals, A. J. (2012). Familiarity from the configuration of objects in 3-dimensional space and its relation to déjà vu: A virtual reality investigation. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 969–975 Déjà vu is the striking sense that the present situation feels familiar, alongside the realization that it has to be new. According to the Gestalt familiarity hypothesis, déjà vu results when the configuration of elements within a scene maps onto a configuration previously seen, but the previous scene fails to come to mind. We examined this using virtual reality (VR) technology. When a new immersive VR scene resembled apreviously-viewed scene in its configuration but people failed to recall the previously-viewed scene, familiarity ratings and reports of déjà vu were indeed higher than for completely novel scenes. People also exhibited the contrasting sense of newness and of familiarity that is characteristic of déjà vu. Familiarity ratings and déjà vu reports among scenes recognized as new increased with increasing feature-match of ascene to one stored in memory, suggesting that feature-matching can produce familiarity and déjà vu when recall fails.

• Google Glass: A Driver Distraction Cause or Cure?

  Human Factors

  Sawyer, B. D., Finomore, V. S., Calvo. A. A., & Hancock, P. A. (2014). Objective: We assess the driving distraction potential of texting with Google Glass (Glass), a mobile wearable platform capable of receiving and sending short-message-service and other messaging formats. Background: A known roadway danger, texting while driving has been targeted by legislation and widely banned. Supporters of Glass claim the head-mounted wearable computer is designed to deliver information without concurrent distraction. Existing literature supports the supposition that design decisions incorporated in Glass might facilitate messaging for drivers. Method: We asked drivers in a simulator to drive and use either Glass or a smartphone-based messaging interface, then interrupted them with an emergency brake event. Both the response event and subsequent recovery were analyzed. Results: Glass-delivered messages served to moderate but did not eliminate distracting cognitive demands. A potential passive cost to drivers merely wearing Glass was also observed. Messaging using either device impaired driving as compared to driving without multitasking. Conclusion: Glass in not a panacea as some supporters claim, but it does point the way to design interventions that effect reduced load in multitasking. Application: Discussions of these identified benefits are framed within the potential of new in-vehicle systems that bring both novel forms of distraction and tools for mitigation into the driver’s seat.

• Examining the impact of age and multitasking on motorcycle conspicuity

  Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation

  Ledbetter, J. L., Boyce, M.W., Fekety, D. K., Sawyer, B., & Smither, J. A. (2012). Examining the impact of age and multitasking on motorcycle conspicuity. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, 41(2012), 5384-5385.